Introduction
A splash of lemon-yellow graces the cap and wings of the male Golden-winged Warbler. This handsome songbird occurs in low densities at high elevations (generally above 2,500 ft [750 m]) in Virginia’s Mountains and Valleys region, where it nests primarily in old field habitats and lightly grazed pastures with a mix of herbaceous, shrub, and tree cover (Albrecht-Mallinger and Bulluck 2016; Lin and Bulluck 2023). Within North America, it occurs in two distinct breeding populations centered on the Great Lakes and the Appalachian Mountains. The Golden-winged Warbler in the Appalachian range has experienced one of the steepest population declines of any North American songbird (see Population Status and Conservation sections for details) (Confer et al. 2020).
Breeding Distribution
Golden-winged Warblers are found only in the Mountains and Valleys region. Within this region, they are moderately likely to occur in three distinct clusters in high-elevation forests within Grayson, Highland, and Tazewell (Figure 1). Golden-winged Warblers have a lower likelihood of occurring outside of these clusters. Elevation and edge habitat are strongly positively associated with the likelihood of this species occurring in a block.
Between the First and Second Atlases (Figures 1 and 2), the overall likelihood of Golden-winged Warbler occurrence decreased substantially throughout the Mountains and Valleys region, especially in the northern and south-central portions (Figure 3). This is consistent with the steep population declines reported for the species in the Appalachian region (see Population Status section).
Figure 1: Golden-winged Warbler breeding distribution based on probability of occurrence (Second Atlas, 2016–2020). This map indicates the probability that this species will occur in an Atlas block (an approximately 10 mi2 [26 km2] survey unit) based on environmental (including habitat) factors and after adjusting for the probability of detection (variation in survey effort among blocks). Blocks in gray are outside the species’ core range and were not modeled.
Figure 2: Golden-winged Warbler breeding distribution based on probability of occurrence (First Atlas, 1985–1989). This map indicates the probability that this species will occur in an Atlas block (an approximately 10 mi2 [26 km2] survey unit) based on environmental (including habitat) factors and after adjusting for the probability of detection (variation in survey effort among blocks). Blocks in white were not surveyed during the First Atlas and were not modeled. Blocks in gray are outside the species’ core range and were not modeled.
Figure 3: Golden-winged Warbler change in breeding distribution between Atlases (1985–1989 and 2016–2020) based on probability of occurrence. This map indicates the change in the probability that this species will occur in a block (an approximately 10 mi2 [26 km2] survey unit) between Atlas periods. Blocks with no change (tan) may have constant presence or constant absence. Blocks in white were not surveyed during the First Atlas and were not modeled. Blocks in gray are outside the species’ core range and were not modeled.
Breeding Evidence
Golden-winged Warblers were confirmed breeders in five blocks and three counties (Giles, Grayson, and Highland Counties) and found to be probable breeders in three additional counties (Bath, Smyth, and Tazewell Counties) (Figure 4). Golden-winged Warblers also were possible breeders only in the Alleghany Highlands region of Bath and Highland Counties, in Rockingham County, and in an area spanning multiple counties in southwestern Virginia. Overall, they were possible, probable, or confirmed breeders in a total of 43 blocks in 11 counties. These observations are consistent with surveys by Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU), which have established that these two areas are the major population centers for the species in Virginia. Despite greater survey effort during the Second Atlas, Golden-winged Warblers were more widespread during the First Atlas (53 blocks within 23 counties), which is indicative of their decline over this period (Figure 5).
Golden-winged Warblers hybridize with the closely related Blue-winged Warbler (Vermivora cyanoptera), producing hybrid forms named Lawrence’s Warbler and Brewster’s Warbler (Confer et al. 2020). The latter was documented from nine blocks in four counties (Highland, Russell, Smyth and Tazewell), and apart from one probable breeding observation, all reports were of possible breeders. An unidentified Golden-winged/Blue-winged Warbler hybrid was documented as a possible breeder in an additional block in Russell County.
Because Golden-winged Warblers are relatively uncommon, only a few observations of breeding evidence were recorded. The earliest breeding behaviors observed were of adults carrying food, nest building, and carrying nesting material on May 16. Feeding of young was observed from July 1 – July 12 (Figure 6). Additionally, Golden-winged Warblers are known to begin breeding in Virginia in early May (Lesley Bulluck, unpublished data).
For more general information on the breeding habits of this species, please refer to All About Birds.
Figure 4: Golden-winged Warbler breeding observations from the Second Atlas (2016–2020). The colored boxes illustrate Atlas blocks (approximately 10 mi2 [26 km2] survey units) where the species was detected. The colors show the highest breeding category recorded in a block. The numbers within the colors in the legend correspond to the number of blocks with that breeding evidence category.
Figure 5: Golden-winged Warbler breeding observations from the First Atlas (1985–1989). The colored boxes illustrate Atlas blocks (approximately 10 mi2 [26 km2] survey units) where the species was detected. The colors show the highest breeding category recorded in a block. The numbers within the colors in the legend correspond to the number of blocks with that breeding evidence category.
Figure 6: Golden-winged Warbler phenology: confirmed breeding codes. This graph shows a timeline of confirmed breeding behaviors. Tick marks represent individual observations of the behavior.
Population Status
Golden-winged Warblers are not numerous in Virginia, and their habitat is often found away from roadsides. Thus, it is unsurprising that they were not detected during the road-based Atlas point count surveys, preventing the development of an abundance model. Similarly, data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) were insufficient to determine reliable population trend estimates for the Golden-winged Warbler in Virginia. However, BBS data at the Appalachian regional scale show that this species experienced a significant annual 6.51% decline from 1966 to 2022 and an even greater significant annual 7.13% decline between Atlases (1987–2018) (Hostetler et al. 2023; Figure 7).
Figure 7: Golden-winged Warbler population trend for the Appalachian Mountains as estimated by the North American Breeding Bird Survey. The vertical axis shows species abundance; the horizontal axis shows the year. The solid line indicates the estimated population trend; there is a 97.5% probability that the true population trend falls between the dashed lines. The shaded bars indicate the First and Second Atlas periods.
Conservation
The Golden-winged Warbler has experienced long-term, steep population declines during the past 50 years and now has one of the smallest populations of any bird that is not included on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Endangered Species List. In the Appalachian Mountain portion of their range, including Virginia, it is estimated that Golden-winged Warbler populations have declined by 98% (Confer et al. 2020). Given these declines, the relatively small population, and its patchy distribution on the landscape, Virginia’s 2025 Wildlife Action Plan classifies the Golden-winged Warbler as a Tier II Species of Greatest Conservation Need (Very High Conservation Need) (VDWR 2025).
The potential causes of the Golden-winged Warbler’s decline include loss of shrubland habitat on the breeding grounds, loss of wintering habitat in South America, and hybridization with the Blue-winged Warbler (Rohrbaugh et al. 2016; Roth et al. 2019; Confer et al. 2020). To address these declines in Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, with support from the Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources, has been conducting surveys and research on the species since 2010. The two entities co-lead the Virginia Golden-winged Warbler Partners group, a group of state and federal agencies and non-governmental organizations engaged in conservation of the species. On the breeding grounds, these efforts focus on ensuring a plentiful supply of the shrubby, high-elevation habitat on which the species depends. Habitat management is necessary to prevent its loss and degradation via ecological succession, overgrazing by cattle, invasive species, and mowing and bush-hogging (VDWR 2025). This can be partially accomplished by increasing the species’ footprint on protected and managed public lands. However, the majority of Virginia’s Golden-winged Warblers are found on private property. Therefore, continued outreach and engagement with private landowners with working lands is a key conservation strategy. Best habitat management practices have been developed for the Appalachian population of Golden-winged Warbler (Roth et al. 2019). These are being implemented through the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Working Lands for Wildlife Program, which provides federal cost-share assistance for habitat management on private lands.
Addressing threats to the species on its wintering grounds is also a high priority, as the drivers of population declines are not yet fully understood. Appalachian Golden-winged Warblers spend the winter months in Colombia and Venezuela (Kramer et al. 2018). This relatively recent discovery has allowed Virginia and neighboring states to support surveys and conservation projects in Colombia since the winter of 2018/2019.
Interactive Map
The interactive map contains up to six Atlas layers (probability of occurrence for the First and Second Atlases, change in probability of occurrence between Atlases, breeding evidence for the First and Second Atlases, and abundance for the Second Atlas) that can be viewed one at a time. To view an Atlas map layer, mouse over the layer box in the upper left. County lines and physiographic regional boundaries (Mountains and Valleys, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain) can be turned on and off by checking or unchecking the box below the layer box. Within the map window, users can hover on a block to see its value for each layer and pan and zoom to see roads, towns, and other features of interest that are visible beneath a selected layer.
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References
Albrecht-Mallinger, D.J., and L. P. Bulluck (2016) Limited evidence for conspecific attraction in a low-density population of a declining songbird, the Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera). The Condor 118: 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-15-217.1.
Confer, J. L., P. Hartman, and A. Roth (2020). Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.gowwar.01.
Hostetler, J. A., J. R. Sauer, J. E. Hines, D. Ziolkowski, and M. Lutmerding (2023). The North American breeding bird survey, analysis results 1966–2022. U.S. Geological Survey, Laurel, MD, USA. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9SC7T11.
G.R. Kramer, D. E. Andersen, D. A. Buehler, P. B. Wood, S. M. Peterson, J. A. Lehman, K. R. Aldinger, L. P. Bulluck, S. Harding, J. A. Jones, J. P. Loegering, C. Smalling, R. Vallender, and H. M. Streby (2018) Population trends in Vermivora warblers are linked to strong migratory connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115: E3192–E3200.
Lin, B.H., and L. P. Bulluck (2023). Using a novel land cover classification to identify multi-scale drivers of site occupancy for shrubland habitat conservation. Landscape Ecology 36: 1831–1845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-023-01658-2
Rohrbaugh, R.W., D. A. Buehler, S. Barker Swarthout, D. King, J.L. Larkin, K.V. Rosenberg, A. Roth, T. Will, and R. Vallender (2016). Conservation perspectives: a review of new science and primary threats with an emphasis on improving strategic golden-winged warbler conservation. in Golden-winged Warbler Ecology, Conservation, and Management. Studies in Avian Biology.
Roth, A.M., R.W. Rohrbaugh, T. Will, S. Barker Swarthout, and D.A. Buehler (Editors) (2019). Golden-winged Warbler status review and conservation plan. 2nd edition. https://gwwa.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/GWWA_Conservation-Plan_191007_low-res.pdf.
Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources (VDWR). 2025. Virginia wildlife action plan. Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources, Henrico, VA, USA. 506 pp.
